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The See Like Animals vision catalogue (catalogue-v1): 162,254 animal species with colour receptor peaks, visual acuity, field of view, foveas, night-vision traits and flicker fusion frequency. Every value carries a source id, an evidence tier (measured, derived, relative, group default, reconstruction) and the basis of any estimate. Every source is cited with a link to the paper or dataset.

180 sources cited on this site

  1. Anderson SR, Wiens JJ. 2017. Out of the dark: 350 million years of conservatism and evolution in diel activity patterns in vertebrates. Evolution 71:1944-1959. Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.fg700. doi.org/10.5061/dryad.fg700
  2. AndrewPMeade/FabricTools, sciphy/data_utils/datasets/Arthropod.CompoundEyes.csv (acuity, body length, light, media for 281 arthropods; columns match Feller et al. 2021 Arthropod Struct Dev 60:101002). github.com/AndrewPMeade/FabricTools
  3. Angielczyk KD, Schmitz L 2014. Nocturnality in synapsids predates the origin of mammals by over 100 million years. Proc R Soc B 281: 20141642. Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.1v8kj.. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1642
  4. Ausprey I.J. & Ritland S. 2024. Eye morphology contributes to the ecology and evolution of the avian tree of life [Dataset]. Dryad. Digitised Table 7 of Ritland S. 1982, The allometry of the vertebrate eye, PhD dissertation, University of Chicago. Paper: Ausprey 2024 J Anim Ecol doi:10.1111/1365-2656.14141. doi.org/10.5061/dryad.3xsj3txq7
  5. Bagheri Z, Jessop A, Partridge J et al. 2022. A new computational model illuminates the extraordinary eyes of Phronima. PLOS Computational Biology. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010545
  6. Baker J. & Venditti C. 2019. Rapid change in mammalian eye shape is explained by activity pattern. Current Biology 29:1082-1088, Table S3 (eye data from Hall, Kamilar & Kirk 2012).. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.02.017
  7. Banks MS, Sprague WW, Schmoll J, Parnell JAQ, Love GD. 2015. Science Advances 1:e1500391. doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500391
  8. Belušič G, Ilić M, Meglič A et al. 2021. Red-green opponency in the long visual fibre photoreceptors of brushfoot butterflies (Nymphalidae). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.1560
  9. Borges R, Johnson WE, O'Brien SJ, Gomes C, Heesy CP, Antunes A (2018) Adaptive genomic evolution of opsins reveals that early mammals flourished in nocturnal environments. BMC Genomics 19:121
  10. Borges R, Khan I, Johnson WE, Gilbert MTP, Zhang G, Jarvis ED, O'Brien SJ, Antunes A (2015) Gene loss, adaptive evolution and the co-evolution of plumage coloration genes with opsins in birds. BMC Genomics 16:751
  11. Boström JE, Dimitrova M, Canton C, Håstad O, Qvarnström A, Ödeen A. 2016. Ultra-rapid vision in birds. PLoS ONE 11(3): e0151099. S1 Table. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151099
  12. Cantlay JC, Martin GR, McClelland SC, Potier S, O'Brien MF, Fernandez-Juricic E, Bond AL, Portugal SJ 2023. Binocular vision and foraging in ducks, geese and swans (Anatidae). Proc R Soc B 290: 20231213. ESM full data set (figshare collection 6781097).. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1213
  13. Caves EM, Brandley NC, Johnsen S (2018) Visual acuity and the evolution of signals. Trends Ecol Evol 33:358-372. Supplementary Tables S1-S3.. doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2018.03.001
  14. Caves EM, Fernandez-Juricic E, Kelley LA (2024) Ecological and morphological correlates of visual acuity in birds. J Exp Biol 227(2): jeb246063. Supplementary Table S1.. doi.org/10.1242/jeb.246063
  15. Caves EM, Sutton TT, Johnsen S (2017) Visual acuity in ray-finned fishes correlates with eye size and habitat. J Exp Biol 220:1586-1596. Table S1.. doi.org/10.1242/jeb.151183
  16. Caves EM, Sutton TT, Warrant EJ, Johnsen S 2023. Measures and models of visual acuity in epipelagic and mesopelagic teleosts and elasmobranchs. Journal of Comparative Physiology A. zenodo.org/records/8251016
  17. Cervino NG et al. 2021. A closer look at pupil diversity and evolution in frogs and toads. Proc R Soc B 288:20211402. doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15112050.v1
  18. Cheng L, Motani R, Jiang D et al. (2019) Early Triassic marine reptile representing the oldest record of unusually small eyes in reptiles indicating non-visual prey detection. Scientific Reports
  19. Choiniere JN, Neenan JM, Schmitz L, Ford DP, Chapelle KEJ, Balanoff AM, Sipla JS, Georgi JA, Walsh SA, Norell MA, Xu X, Clark JM, Benson RBJ. 2021. Evolution of vision and hearing modalities in theropod dinosaurs. Science 372:610-613. doi:10.1126/science.abe7941. Data: https://osf.io/teq73/. doi.org/10.1126/science.abe7941
  20. Chung W, Marshall N 2016. Comparative visual ecology of cephalopods from different habitats. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1346
  21. Claes JM et al. 2014. Photon hunting in the twilight zone: visual features of mesopelagic bioluminescent sharks. PLoS ONE 9:e104213, Dataset S1. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104213
  22. Comparative data for dance fly eye morphology and female ornamentation (Empididae). Data: Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.rr4xgxd5z. doi.org/10.5061/dryad.rr4xgxd5z
  23. Cone topography and spectral sensitivity in two potentially trichromatic marsupials, the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) and quenda (Isoodon obesulus) (2005)
  24. Currea JP, Sondhi Y, Kawahara AY, Theobald J. 2023. Measuring compound eye optics with microscope and microCT images. Commun Biol 6:246
  25. de Busserolles F, Cortesi F, Helvik J et al. (2017) Pushing the limits of photoreception in twilight conditions: The rod-like cone retina of the deep-sea pearlsides. Science Advances
  26. de Sousa AA et al. 2022. A natural history of vision loss: insight from evolution for human visual function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 134:104550 (mmc, acuity compilation). doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104550
  27. Delacoux M, Kano F. 2024. Fine-scale tracking reveals visual field use for predator detection and escape in collective foraging of pigeon flocks. eLife 13:RP95549. doi.org/10.7554/elife.95549
  28. Dunn D, Baker J, Sorden S. 2017. Eye and Associated Glands Boorman's Pathology of the Rat :251-278. europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC7148627
  29. Eye-body allometry across biphasic ontogeny in anuran amphibians (NHM Data Portal). doi.org/10.5519/7qw9vju8
  30. Feller K, Cronin T 2016. Spectral absorption of visual pigments in stomatopod larval photoreceptors. Journal of Comparative Physiology A. doi.org/10.1007/s00359-015-1063-y
  31. Feller KD, Sharkey CR, McDuffee-Altekruse A, Bracken-Grissom HD, Lord NP, Porter ML, Schweikert LE 2021. Surf and turf vision: patterns and predictors of visual acuity in compound eye evolution. Arthropod Structure & Development 60:101002. doi.org/10.1016/j.asd.2020.101002
  32. Feuda R, Marletaz F, Bentley MA, Holland PWH. 2016. Conservation, duplication, and divergence of five opsin genes in insect evolution. Genome Biol Evol 8:579-587
  33. Fogg LG, Chung W-S, Marshall NJ, Cortesi F, de Busserolles F. 2023. Multiple rod layers increase the speed and sensitivity of vision in nocturnal reef fishes. Proc R Soc B 290 (doi:10.1098/rspb.2023.1749). Data: Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.280gb5mtf, mirrored on Zenodo 7636493. doi.org/10.5061/dryad.280gb5mtf
  34. Fornazari GA, Montiani-Ferreira F, Filho IR, Somma AT, Moore B. 2016. The eye of the Barbary sheep or aoudad (Ammotragus lervia): reference values for selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests, morphologic and biometric observations. Open veterinary journal 6(2):102-113. doi.org/10.4314/ovj.v6i2.6
  35. Frank TM, Johnsen S, Cronin TW. 2012. J Exp Biol 215:3344-3353. doi.org/10.1242/jeb.072033
  36. Frazer SA, Baghalian M, et al. 2024. Discovering genotype-phenotype relationships with machine learning and the Visual Physiology Opsin Database (VPOD). GigaScience 13:giae073; VPOD v1.3 data release. doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19051998
  37. Froese R. & Pauly D. (eds). FishBase, snapshot v25.04 (morphmet, morphdat, species, families tables), distributed as parquet by C. Boettiger for rfishbase.. fishbase.org
  38. Garm A, Bielecki J, Petie R, Nilsson DE. 2016. Hunting in bioluminescent light: vision in the nocturnal box jellyfish Copula sivickisi. Front Physiol 7:99
  39. Gruber D, Loew E, Deheyn D et al. (2016) Biofluorescence in Catsharks (Scyliorhinidae): Fundamental Description and Relevance for Elasmobranch Visual Ecology. Scientific Reports
  40. Guareschi BLV, Sallum JMF, Salles MV, de Moraes JGO, Bortolini M, Cray C, Moore BA, da Rosa CC, Montiani-Ferreira F. 2025. GUCY2D-Associated Retinopathy: A Comparative Study Between Humans and German Spitz Dogs. Veterinary sciences 12(9):879. doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12090879
  41. Guignard Q, Allison JD, Slippers B. 2022. The evolution of insect visual opsin genes with specific consideration of the influence of ocelli and life history traits. BMC Ecol Evol 22:2
  42. Haarlem CS, Hynes C, Jackson AL, Mitchell KJ, O'Connell RG, Healy K. 2026. Pace of ecology drives the tempo of visual perception across the animal kingdom. Nature Ecology & Evolution (doi:10.1038/s41559-026-02994-7). Figshare dataset 10.6084/m9.figshare.30556475. doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30556475
  43. Hadden PW, Zhang J. 2023. An Overview of the Penguin Visual System. Vision (Basel, Switzerland) 7(1):6. doi.org/10.3390/vision7010006
  44. Hárosi F, MacNichol E (1974) Visual Pigments of Goldfish Cones. The Journal of General Physiology
  45. Hart NS, Lamb TD, Patel HR et al. 2020. Visual opsin diversity in sharks and rays. Mol Biol Evol 37:811-827. doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msz269
  46. Healy K, McNally L, Ruxton GD, Cooper N, Jackson AL. 2013. Metabolic rate and body size are linked with perception of temporal information. Animal Behaviour 86:685-696. Table 1. doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.06.018
  47. Heesy CP 2004. On the relationship between orbit orientation and binocular visual field overlap in mammals. Anat Rec 281A:1104, Table 1. doi.org/10.1002/ar.a.20116
  48. Heffner RS, Heffner HE 1992. Visual factors in sound localization in mammals. J Comp Neurol 317:219, Table 1 (via Evo-M1 sensory merge). doi.org/10.1002/cne.903170302
  49. Heras F, Laughlin S 2026. Investments in photoreceptors compete with investments in optics to determine eye design. eLife. doi.org/10.7554/eLife.96517
  50. Hofmann C, O'Quin K, Marshall N et al. (2009) The Eyes Have It: Regulatory and Structural Changes Both Underlie Cichlid Visual Pigment Diversity. PLoS Biology
  51. Horodysky A, Brill R, Crawford K et al. (2013) Comparative visual ecophysiology of mid-Atlantic temperate reef fishes. Biology Open
  52. Host-trailing satellite flight behaviour is associated with greater investment in peripheral visual sensory system in miltogrammine flies. Scientific Reports 12 (2022) (PMC8854417), Table 1.. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-06704-3
  53. Inger R, Bennie J, Davies TW, Gaston KJ. 2014. Potential biological and ecological effects of flickering artificial light. PLoS ONE 9(5): e98631. Table 3. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098631
  54. Into the blue: Gene duplication and loss underlie color vision adaptations in a deep-sea chimaera, the elephant sharkCallorhinchus milii (2009)
  55. Irwin AR et al. 2024. Evolution of large eyes in Stromboidea (Gastropoda): impact of photic environment and life history traits. Supplementary tables (Zenodo 10.5281/zenodo.13768189); Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.pnvx0k6v0. doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13768189
  56. Johnson R, Rutowski R 2022. Color, activity period, and eye structure in four lineages of ants: Pale, nocturnal species have evolved larger eyes and larger facets than their dark, diurnal congeners. PLOS ONE. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257779
  57. Johnson RA, Rutowski RL 2022. Color, activity period, and eye structure in four lineages of ants: pale, nocturnal species have evolved larger eyes and larger facets than their dark, diurnal congeners. PLoS ONE 17(9):e0257779. zenodo.org/records/7189909
  58. Jones KE et al. 2009. PanTHERIA: a species-level database of life history, ecology, and geography of extant and recently extinct mammals. Ecology 90:2648. Ecological Archives E090-184. doi.org/10.1890/08-1494.1
  59. Kelber A, Somanathan H 2019. Spatial Vision and Visually Guided Behavior in Apidae. Insects. doi.org/10.3390/insects10120418
  60. Kelber A, Vorobyev M, Osorio D. 2003. Animal colour vision - behavioural tests and physiological concepts. Biol Rev 78:81-118. doi.org/10.1017/S1464793102005985
  61. Kirk & Kay 2004 Table 2 (anatomical acuity). doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8873-7_20
  62. Kirk EC, Kay RF 2004. The evolution of high visual acuity in the Anthropoidea. In Anthropoid Origins, Table 1 (behavioural acuity). doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8873-7_20
  63. Kirwan J. luxR 0.1.1: Underwater Light Analysis and Visual Ecology (R-universe), data species_sensitivities. github.com/JohnKirwan/luxR
  64. Kopania EEK, Clark NL. 2025. Mammalian retinal specializations for high acuity vision evolve in response to both foraging strategies and morphological constraints. Evolution Letters 9: qrae072. Supplementary Tables S1-S2.. doi.org/10.1093/evlett/qrae072
  65. Lafitte A, Sordello R, Legrand M, Nicolas V, Obein G, Reyjol Y. 2022. A flashing light may not be that flashy: A systematic review on critical fusion frequencies. PLoS ONE 17(12): e0279718. S10 File (CFF database). doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279718
  66. Lautenschlager et al. 2023. Orbit size and estimated eye size in dinosaurs and other archosaurs and their implications for the evolution of visual capabilities. J Vert Paleontol (2023) e2295518.. doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25046402.v2
  67. Laver C, Taylor J (2011) RT-qPCR reveals opsin gene upregulation associated with age and sex in guppies (Poecilia reticulata) - a species with color-based sexual selection and 11 visual-opsin genes. BMC Evolutionary Biology
  68. Light conditions and the evolution of the visual system in birds (figshare dataset, SupplementaryDataset1). doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22116371.v3
  69. Lin JJ, Wang FY, Li WH, Wang TY (2017) The rises and falls of opsin genes in 59 ray-finned fish genomes and their implications for environmental adaptation. Sci Rep 7:15568
  70. Lind O, Mitkus M, Olsson P, Kelber A. 2014. Ultraviolet vision in birds: the importance of transparent eye media. Proc R Soc B 281:20132209. Table 1. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2209
  71. Longcore T. 2023. A compendium of photopigment peak sensitivities and visual spectral response curves of terrestrial wildlife to guide design of outdoor nighttime lighting. Basic Appl Ecol 73:40-50. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2023.09.002. doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8432720
  72. Lord NP, Plimpton RL, Sharkey CR, et al. 2016. A cure for the blues: opsin duplication and subfunctionalization for short-wavelength sensitivity in jewel beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). BMC Evol Biol 16:107
  73. Losey GS et al. 2003. Visual biology of Hawaiian coral reef fishes. I. Ocular transmission and visual pigments. Copeia 2003:433-454. doi.org/10.1643/01-053
  74. Lucas EA, Martin GR, Rocamora G, Portugal SJ. 2024. A seabird's eye view: visual fields of some seabirds (Laridae and Procellariidae) from tropical latitudes. The Science of Nature (Naturwissenschaften) 111. ESM 1.. doi.org/10.1007/s00114-024-01926-4
  75. Maor R, Dayan T, Ferguson-Gow H, Jones KE. 2017. Temporal niche expansion in mammals from a nocturnal ancestor after dinosaur extinction. Nature Ecology & Evolution 1:1889-1895. Supplementary Table 1. doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0366-5
  76. Martín-Gabarrella, Gemeno, Škorjanc et al. 2025. Pupil dynamics reveal the tuning of tortricid moths to diel activity. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology. doi.org/10.1007/s00359-025-01759-0
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  124. species_v1:Bullock et al. 1991 (via Lafitte et al. 2022)
  125. species_v1:Campbell & Green 1965
  126. species_v1:Fleishman et al. 1988 / Makaretz & Levine 1980
  127. species_v1:Hadden & Zhang 2023 (Table 1, primary ref [47])
  128. species_v1:Harmening et al. 2009
  129. species_v1:Hart et al. 2004
  130. species_v1:Hart et al. 2025
  131. species_v1:Healy et al. 2013
  132. species_v1:Hemmi 1999; Hemmi et al. 2000
  133. species_v1:Hendrickson et al. 2000
  134. species_v1:Jacobs & Neitz 1986
  135. species_v1:Jacobs et al. 1993 (canids)
  136. species_v1:Jacobs, Deegan & Moran 1996
  137. species_v1:Martin & Young 1983
  138. species_v1:Martin 1977
  139. species_v1:Martin 1984
  140. species_v1:Martin 1994
  141. species_v1:Miller & Murphy 1995
  142. species_v1:Morris 1982
  143. species_v1:Nagloo et al. 2016
  144. species_v1:Nityananda et al. 2016 (citing ref [21])
  145. species_v1:Nomura et al. 2019 (via Lafitte et al. 2022)
  146. species_v1:Ott & Schaeffel 1995
  147. species_v1:Patterson et al. 2002 (via Lafitte et al. 2022)
  148. species_v1:Pignatelli et al. 2010
  149. species_v1:Potier et al. 2017
  150. species_v1:Potier et al. 2017 (review, Front Neurosci?)
  151. species_v1:Reymond 1985
  152. species_v1:Reymond 1987
  153. species_v1:Rigosi, Warrant & O'Carroll 2021
  154. species_v1:Schwab et al. 2001
  155. species_v1:Siddiqi et al. 2004
  156. species_v1:Standard textbook knowledge
  157. species_v1:Temple et al. 2010
  158. species_v1:Timney & Keil 1992
  159. species_v1:Tovee, Bowmaker & Mollon 1992; Travis et al. 1988
  160. species_v1:Williams & McIntyre 1980
  161. Stevens KA. 2006. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 26(2):321-330. doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634
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  177. Wilman et al. 2014 EltonTraits 1.0, MamFuncDat.txt. doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.3559887.v1
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Catalogue built 2026-09-29.