Sharks and rays vision science: every measurement
The vision values of all 68 sharks and rays on this site, one row each, with the evidence level of every value and the studies behind it. Species with enough measured values also have their own science page.
Who sees best among sharks and rays?
Sharpest detail
- 1You63.75 cycles per degree Measured
- 2Sandbar shark8.9 cycles per degree Measured
- 3Dogfish7.47 cycles per degree Measured
- 4Shortspine spurdog7.2 cycles per degree Measured
- 5Scalloped hammerhead shark6.89 cycles per degree Measured
- 6Blue shark6.667 cycles per degree Measured
Fastest eyes
- 1You60 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 2Sandbar shark54 Hz flicker fusion Measured*
- 3Brownbanded bamboo shark44 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 4Epaulette shark40 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 5Lemon shark37 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 6Bonnethead31 Hz flicker fusion Measured
Measured values by dial
| Dial | Species with a measured value |
|---|---|
| Colour | 33 |
| Sharpness | 30 |
| Field of view | 5 |
| Sharp zones (foveas) | 0 |
| Night vision | 0 |
| Motion (flicker fusion) | 19 |
All sharks and rays, value by value
Evidence levels: how the tiers work. Studies: sources.
| Species | Colour | Sharpness | Field of view | Sharp zones (foveas) | Night vision | Motion (flicker fusion) | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australian butterfly ray Gymnura australis | 2 receptor classes: 466.8 nm (SWS (blue)), 556 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 29 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish |
| Australian ghostshark Callorhinchus milii | 1 receptor class: 551 nm (LWS (long)) Measured | 2.5 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | - | 28.5 Hz Group default | luxR_0.1.1_species_sensitivities, caves2023_depth, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, haarlem2026_figshare, healy2013_tbl1, inger2014_tbl3 |
| Australian sharpnose shark Rhizoprionodon taylori | 1 receptor class: 533.1 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 6.458 cycles per degree Estimated | - | - | - | 37.5 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, haarlem2026_figshare |
| Big skate Beringraja binoculata | 1 receptor class: 497 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 26.9 Hz Estimated | murphy_westerman2022_tableS1, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, haarlem2026_figshare, healy2013_tbl1 |
| Bigeye thresher shark Alopias superciliosus | 3 receptor classes: 475 nm (SWS (blue)), 533 nm (MWS (green)), 562 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 10.56 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | - | 29 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, haarlem2026_figshare, healy2013_tbl1 |
| Blackbelly lanternshark Etmopterus lucifer | 3 receptor classes: 475 nm (SWS (blue)), 533 nm (MWS (green)), 562 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 2.53 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 1.97 µm² sr, 2.118 times people (log10 ratio 0.326) Derived | 20 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, x26n:claes2014, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Blackmouth catshark Galeus melastomus | 1 receptor class: 484 nm (MWS (green)) Estimated | 4.09 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 1.67 µm² sr, 1.796 times people (log10 ratio 0.254) Derived | 16.1 Hz Estimated | PMC4843165_text, claes2014_sharks, x26n:claes2014, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Blacknose shark science page Carcharhinus acronotus | 1 receptor class: 480 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 6.534 cycles per degree Estimated | 10.7° Measured 332.7° Measured 171.7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.4) Measured 10.7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane, anterior binocular overlap, physiological (ERG); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.3) Measured 332.7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.8) Measured 192°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.7) Measured 9.3°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane (dorsal and ventral overlap); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.7) Measured 360°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.0) Measured | - | - | 18 Hz Measured | murphy_westerman2022_tableS1, caves2023_depth, claes2014_sharks, x26v:mccomb2009, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Blacktip reef shark Carcharhinus melanopterus | 1 receptor class: 527.8 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.77 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | - | 36 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus | 1 receptor class: 531.9 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 6.534 cycles per degree Estimated | - | - | - | 36 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Blue shark Prionace glauca | 1 receptor class: 534 nm (MWS (green)) Estimated | 6.667 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 1.33 µm² sr, 1.43 times people (log10 ratio 0.155) Derived | 37.5 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, x26n:claes2014, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, haarlem2026_figshare |
| Blue-spotted stingray Neotrygon kuhlii | 2 receptor classes: 475.9 nm (SWS (blue)), 552 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 29 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish |
| Bonnethead science page Sphyrna tiburo | 1 receptor class: 483 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 6.72 cycles per degree Estimated | 13.4° Measured 338.3° Measured 175.9°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.1) Measured 13.4°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane, anterior binocular overlap, physiological (ERG); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.7) Measured 338.3°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 2.1) Measured 189.1°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.7) Measured 9.1°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane (dorsal and ventral overlap); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.6) Measured 360°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.0) Measured | - | - | 31 Hz Measured | murphy_westerman2022_tableS1, claes2014_sharks, x26v:mccomb2009, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Bottlenose wedgefish Rhynchobatus australiae | 2 receptor classes: 475.1 nm (SWS (blue)), 554.8 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 45 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Brownbanded bamboo shark science page Chiloscyllium punctatum | 1 receptor class: 531.9 nm (MWS (green)) Measured (not re-verified) | 1.8 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 2.08 µm² sr, 2.237 times people (log10 ratio 0.35) Derived | 44 Hz Measured | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2024, x26n:claes2014, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Bull shark Carcharhinus leucas | 1 receptor class: 554.2 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 4.167 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 1 µm² sr, 1.075 times people (log10 ratio 0.032) Derived | 36 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, x26n:claes2014, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Carpenter's chimaera Chimaera lignaria | 1 receptor class: 551 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 2.941 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | - | 28.5 Hz Group default | luxR_0.1.1_species_sensitivities, caves2023_depth, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish, haarlem2026_figshare, healy2013_tbl1, inger2014_tbl3 |
| Chain catshark Scyliorhinus retifer | 1 receptor class: 488 nm (MWS (green)) Measured | 3.445 cycles per degree Estimated | - | - | - | 3.2 Hz Estimated | PMC4843165_text, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Common stingaree Trygonoptera testacea | 2 receptor classes: 480.9 nm (MWS (green)), 556.8 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 29 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish |
| Cookie cutter shark Isistius brasiliensis | 3 receptor classes: 475 nm (SWS (blue)), 533 nm (MWS (green)), 562 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 2.61 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | - | 20 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Cownose ray Rhinoptera bonasus | 2 receptor classes: 470 nm (SWS (blue)), 551 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 29 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish |
| Dogfish Centroscymnus coelolepis | 3 receptor classes: 475 nm (SWS (blue)), 533 nm (MWS (green)), 562 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 7.47 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 0.99 µm² sr, 1.065 times people (log10 ratio 0.027) Derived | 20 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, x26n:claes2014, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Dusky smooth-hound Mustelus canis | 1 receptor class: 534 nm (MWS (green)) Group default | 5.92 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 13 Hz Measured | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Dwarf spotted wobbegong shark Orectolobus parvimaculatus | 1 receptor class: 552.9 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 3.846 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 5.42 µm² sr, 5.828 times people (log10 ratio 0.766) Derived | 42 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, x26n:claes2014, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Eastern fiddler ray Trygonorrhina fasciata | 2 receptor classes: 470.1 nm (SWS (blue)), 568 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 45 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Eastern shovelnose ray Aptychotrema rostrata | 2 receptor classes: 458.9 nm (SWS (blue)), 553.1 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 45 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Epaulette shark Hemiscyllium ocellatum | 1 receptor class: 531.9 nm (MWS (green)) Estimated | 2.8 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | S = 2.58 µm² sr, 2.774 times people (log10 ratio 0.443) Derived | 40 Hz Measured | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, x26n:claes2014, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Estuary stingray Hemitrygon fluviorum | 2 receptor classes: 474.9 nm (SWS (blue)), 566 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 29 Hz Group default | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, PMC3863422_midatlantic_reef_fish |
| Giant shovelnose ray Glaucostegus typus | 3 receptor classes: 477 nm (SWS (blue)), 502 nm (MWS (green)), 561 nm (LWS (long)) Measured (not re-verified) | 3.98 cycles per degree Group default | - | - | - | 45 Hz Group default | species_v1:Hart et al. 2004, caves2023_depth, caves2024, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
| Great hammerhead shark Sphyrna mokarran | 1 receptor class: 534 nm (MWS (green)) Group default | 6.72 cycles per degree Measured | - | - | - | 29.15 Hz Estimated | hart2020_shark_opsins_manual2, vpod_in_vivo_scp, claes2014_sharks, lafitte2022_s10 |
Carcharodon carcharias
Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos
Heterodontus francisci
Scyliorhinus torazame
Negaprion brevirostris
308° Measured
159°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.5) Measured
10°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane, anterior binocular overlap, physiological (ERG); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.5) Measured
308°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.7) Measured
184.8°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.4) Measured
4.3°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane (dorsal and ventral overlap); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.6) Measured
360°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.0) Measured
Leucoraja erinacea
Orectolobus ornatus
Rhinochimaera pacifica
Carcharhinus amboinensis
Squalus acanthias
Pateobatis fai
Heterodontus portusjacksoni
Haploblepharus edwardsii
Taeniura lymma
Carcharias taurus
Carcharhinus plumbeus
Sphyrna lewini
331.7° Measured
181.7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.8) Measured
31.7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane, anterior binocular overlap, physiological (ERG); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 3.7) Measured
331.7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.7) Measured
187°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.7) Measured
7°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane (dorsal and ventral overlap); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 1.9) Measured
360°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; vertical plane; mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 0.0) Measured
Squalus mitsukurii
Squaliolus aliae
Scyliorhinus canicula
Sphyrna zygaena
Mustelus mustelus
Potamotrygon motoro
Etmopterus splendidus
Hydrolagus colliei
Orectolobus maculatus
Mustelus manazo
Cephaloscyllium ventriosum
Platyrhinoidis triseriata
Galeocerdo cuvier
Etmopterus spinax
Trigonognathus kabeyai
Aptychotrema vincentiana
Orectolobus hutchinsi
Aetobatus narinari
Eusphyra blochii
48.3°; horizontal or vertical plane as stated; anaesthetised animals; in water; horizontal plane, anterior binocular overlap; morphological method (only dead specimens of winghead could be obtained; the physiological row of Table 1 repeats this value); mean ± s.e.m. (s.e.m. 2.7) Measured
Leucoraja ocellata
Urobatis jamaicensis
Method: how we know what animals see. Accuracy: the census.