Birds vision science: every measurement
The vision values of all 250 birds on this site, one row each, with the evidence level of every value and the studies behind it. Species with enough measured values also have their own science page.
Who sees best among birds?
Sharpest detail
- 1Wedge-tailed eagle139 cycles per degree Measured
- 2Egyptian vulture135 cycles per degree Measured
- 3Indian vulture135 cycles per degree Measured
- 4Griffon vulture104 cycles per degree Measured
- 5Brown falcon73 cycles per degree Measured
- 6You63.75 cycles per degree Measured
Fastest eyes
- 1European pied flycatcher138.2 Hz flicker fusion Measured*
- 2Collared flycatcher128.1 Hz flicker fusion Measured*
- 3Peregrine falcon124.5 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 4Brown-headed cowbird114.7 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 5Chicken104 Hz flicker fusion Measured
- 6You60 Hz flicker fusion Measured
Measured values by dial
| Dial | Species with a measured value |
|---|---|
| Colour | 44 |
| Sharpness | 105 |
| Field of view | 141 |
| Sharp zones (foveas) | 57 |
| Night vision | 245 |
| Motion (flicker fusion) | 18 |
All birds, value by value
Evidence levels: how the tiers work. Studies: sources.
| Species | Colour | Sharpness | Field of view | Sharp zones (foveas) | Night vision | Motion (flicker fusion) | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescens | 4 receptor classes: 367.5 nm (UVS), 443 nm (SWS (blue)), 502.5 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default | 8.9 cycles per degree Estimated | 22.78° Measured 332.1° Derived | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2024, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea, rodrigues2026_foveal_birds_manual2 |
| African harrier-hawk Polyboroides typus | 4 receptor classes: 405 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 449 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 567 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 84 cycles per degree Estimated | 27° Measured (not re-verified) 277.5° Estimated | 2 Estimated deep central + shallow temporal Estimated | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 77.7 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, potier2020, portugal2023_harrierhawk_cub_manual2 |
| American barn owl Tyto furcata | 3 receptor classes: 463 nm (SWS (blue)), 530 nm (MWS (green)), 555 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 13.6 cycles per degree Measured | 36° Estimated 201° Group default | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | nocturnal Estimated rod-dominated Estimated | 50 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2024, potier2023_owls, species_v1:Martin 1984, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| American black duck Anas rubripes | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 11.9 cycles per degree Estimated | 23.5° Measured 306° Estimated | 1 Estimated single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, cantlay2023_anatidae_binocular, pecsics_csorgo2023_diving_bird_fields_manual2, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| American flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber | 2 receptor classes: 404 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 503 nm (MWS (green)) Group default | 10.6 cycles per degree Measured | 7° Estimated 338° Group default | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | borges2015_bird_opsins, lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2024, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular |
| American goldfinch science page Spinus tristis | 4 receptor classes: 367.5 nm (UVS), 443 nm (SWS (blue)), 502.5 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated | 5.4 cycles per degree Measured | 46° Measured 315° Derived | 1 Measured (not re-verified) single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2018, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea, anderson_wiens2017_fg700 |
| American kestrel science page Falco sparverius | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 30.85 cycles per degree Measured | 27.5° Measured 292° Derived 68° Measured lateral Derived 112.5°; elevation 90 deg (horizontal plane through the eyes); eyes at rest unless stated Measured | 2 Measured central fovea, temporal Measured | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 113.25 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular |
| American robin Turdus migratorius | 4 receptor classes: 373 nm (UVS), 454 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 557 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated | 20.85 cycles per degree Estimated | 35° Group default | 1 Measured (not re-verified) single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular |
| American tree sparrow science page Spizelloides arborea | 4 receptor classes: 367.5 nm (UVS), 443 nm (SWS (blue)), 502.5 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default | 7.03 cycles per degree Measured | 40.5° Measured 325° Derived 35° Measured lateral Derived | 1 Measured (not re-verified) single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2018, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| American woodcock Scolopax minor | 1 receptor class: 568 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 12.67 cycles per degree Estimated | 27.1° Group default 360° Measured (not re-verified) | 0 Measured (not re-verified) none Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, ausprey_ritland2024, lucas2024_seabirds, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, species_v1:Martin 1994, anderson_wiens2017_fg700 |
| Andean condor Vultur gryphus | 4 receptor classes: 405 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 449 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 567 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 15.07 cycles per degree Estimated | 30° Estimated | 1 Measured (not re-verified) deep central only Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 77.7 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, potier2023_owls, potier2017_bbe_raptor_eye_fovea |
| Anhinga Anhinga anhinga | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 13.1 cycles per degree Estimated | 20° Measured (not re-verified) 316° Measured (not re-verified) | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, ausprey_ritland2024, pecsics_csorgo2023_diving_bird_fields_manual2, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea, potier2017_bbe_raptor_eye_fovea |
| Anna's hummingbird science page Calypte anna | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 6 cycles per degree Measured | 27.5° Group default lateral Group default 22 to 23° (approximate); data pooled across Calypte anna (n=5) and Selasphorus rufus (n=2) by the authors (similar configuration); plane of the bill; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 22 to 23° (approximate); data pooled across Calypte anna (n=5) and Selasphorus rufus (n=2) by the authors (similar configuration); plane of the bill; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 27° (approximate); data pooled across Calypte anna (n=5) and Selasphorus rufus (n=2) by the authors (similar configuration); plane of the bill; eyes at rest unless stated; eyes converged Measured 15 to 16° (approximate); data pooled across Calypte anna (n=5) and Selasphorus rufus (n=2) by the authors (similar configuration); plane of the bill; eyes at rest unless stated; eyes diverged Measured 190° (approximate); data pooled across Calypte anna (n=5) and Selasphorus rufus (n=2) by the authors (similar configuration); plane of the bill; eyes at rest unless stated Measured | 1 Group default temporal fovea only (no central pit) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 75 Hz Measured | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2024, cantlay2023_anatidae_binocular, lucas2024_seabirds, moorhen2026 |
| Australian masked owl Tyto novaehollandiae | 3 receptor classes: 463 nm (SWS (blue)), 530 nm (MWS (green)), 555 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 10 cycles per degree Measured | 36° Estimated 201° Group default | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | nocturnal Measured (not re-verified) rod-dominated Derived | 50 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, potier2020, potier2023_owls, species_v1:Martin 1984, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Bald eagle science page Haliaeetus leucocephalus | 4 receptor classes: 405 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 449 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 567 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 84 cycles per degree Estimated | 39° Measured 277.5° Estimated 82.5° Estimated lateral Derived 47°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured 37°; horizontal plane (90 deg elevation); eyes converged (binocular boundaries measured with eyes spontaneously fully rotated forwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured 138°; horizontal plane; schematic sector in Fig. 1 that combines converged-eye binocular and diverged-eye blind boundaries; alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured | 2 Measured (not re-verified) deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 77.7 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, potier2020, potier2023_owls |
| Barn owl science page Tyto alba | 3 receptor classes: 463 nm (SWS (blue)), 530 nm (MWS (green)), 555 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 3.3 cycles per degree Measured | 36° Measured 201° Group default 159° Group default lateral Derived | 1 Measured (not re-verified) temporal Measured (not re-verified) | nocturnal Measured (not re-verified) no Measured (not re-verified) rod-dominated Derived | 50 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2018, caves2024, potier2023_owls, species_v1:Martin 1984 |
| Barn swallow Hirundo rustica | 4 receptor classes: 367.5 nm (UVS), 443 nm (SWS (blue)), 502.5 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default | 10.05 cycles per degree Estimated | 23.03° Estimated 307° Estimated | 2 Measured (not re-verified) central and temporal fovea Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2024, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, rodrigues2026_foveal_birds_manual2, anderson_wiens2017_fg700 |
| Barnacle goose Branta leucopsis | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 13.25 cycles per degree Estimated | 24.5° Measured 306° Estimated | 1 Estimated single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, cantlay2023_anatidae_binocular, pecsics_csorgo2023_diving_bird_fields_manual2 |
| Barred owl Strix varia | 3 receptor classes: 463 nm (SWS (blue)), 530 nm (MWS (green)), 555 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 29.3 cycles per degree Measured | 48.5° Estimated 201° Estimated | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | nocturnal Measured (not re-verified) rod-dominated Derived | 50 Hz Estimated | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, potier2020, potier2023_owls, species_v1:Martin 1984, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Black grouse Lyrurus tetrix | 4 receptor classes: 418 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 455 nm (SWS (blue)), 507 nm (MWS (green)), 569 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 11.35 cycles per degree Estimated | 28° Measured 353° Measured 353°; male black grouse; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 28°; male black grouse; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 162.5°; male black grouse; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 7°; male black grouse; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 40°; male black grouse; eyes at rest unless stated Measured 170°; male black grouse; eyes at rest unless stated Measured | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 104 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, x26v:blackgrouse2026, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Black kite science page Milvus migrans | 4 receptor classes: 405 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 449 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 567 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 31.1 cycles per degree Measured | 39° Measured 277.5° Estimated 82.5° Estimated lateral Derived | 1 Measured (not re-verified) deep central only Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 77.7 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, potier2020, potier2023_owls, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow |
| Black phoebe science page Sayornis nigricans | 4 receptor classes: 367.5 nm (UVS), 443 nm (SWS (blue)), 502.5 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default | 8.88 cycles per degree Measured | 32° Measured 333.5° Estimated | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, vpod_in_vivo_scp, caves2024, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Black skimmer Rynchops niger | 1 receptor class: 568 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 12.22 cycles per degree Estimated | 16° Measured 306.6° Estimated 14°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, ausprey_ritland2024, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, lucas2024_seabirds, x26v:troscianko2012, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Black vulture Coragyps atratus | 4 receptor classes: 405 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 449 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 567 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 15.23 cycles per degree Measured | 30° Estimated | 1 Estimated deep central only Estimated | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 77.7 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, potier2023_owls, potier2017_bbe_raptor_eye_fovea |
| Black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophris | 4 receptor classes: 406 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 450 nm (SWS (blue)), 503 nm (MWS (green)), 566 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 21.48 cycles per degree Estimated | 7° Measured 271° Measured 32° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured 90° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured 152° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured 271° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured 32°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, ausprey_ritland2024, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, x26v:martinkatzir1999, x26v:troscianko2012 |
| Black-capped chickadee Poecile atricapillus | 4 receptor classes: 371.5 nm (UVS), 448 nm (SWS (blue)), 503 nm (MWS (green)), 563 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated | 4.97 cycles per degree Estimated | 51° Estimated 303° Estimated | 1 Measured (not re-verified) single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 91 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Black-chested buzzard-eagle science page Geranoaetus melanoleucus | 4 receptor classes: 405 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 449 nm (SWS (blue)), 504 nm (MWS (green)), 567 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 84 cycles per degree Estimated | 55.5° Measured (not re-verified) 158.7° Derived 201.3° Derived lateral Derived 90°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured | 2 Measured (not re-verified) deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 77.7 Hz Estimated | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, potier2020, potier2018_jeb_raptor_fields_manual2 |
| Black-crowned night-heron Nycticorax nycticorax | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Group default | 18.5 cycles per degree Estimated | 13° Measured 320° Measured 180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured 171° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured 320° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured | 1 Group default single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default | nocturnal Measured (not re-verified) rod-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, ausprey_ritland2024, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, x26v:martinkatzir1999, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea |
| Blue duck Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos | 4 receptor classes: 417.5 nm (VS/SWS (violet)), 452 nm (SWS (blue)), 501 nm (MWS (green)), 570 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 11.2 cycles per degree Estimated | 34.4° Measured 306° Estimated 34°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured | 1 Estimated single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 88.5 Hz Group default | lind2014_table1, longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2018, caves2024, cantlay2023_anatidae_binocular, pecsics_csorgo2023_diving_bird_fields_manual2 |
| Blue jay science page Cyanocitta cristata | 2 receptor classes: 497 nm (MWS (green)), 565 nm (LWS (long)) Estimated | 18.75 cycles per degree Measured | 16.5° Estimated 328.5° Estimated 31.5° Estimated lateral Estimated | 1 Measured (not re-verified) single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified) | diurnal Measured (not re-verified) cone-dominated Derived | 100 Hz Group default | longcore2023_photopigments_v1.1, caves2024, tyrrell2017_amnat_swallow, tyrrell2017_plosone_binocular, moore2017_scirep_single_fovea, anderson_wiens2017_fg700 |
Cyanistes caeruleus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
311° Estimated
49° Estimated
lateral Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured (not re-verified)
327° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Neopsephotus bourkii
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Branta bernicla
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Buteo platypterus
278° Estimated
deep central only Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Falco berigora
292° Estimated
68° Estimated
lateral Estimated
central fovea, temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Lichmera indistincta
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Anous stolidus
310.4° Derived
149°; alert birds; eyes at rest; horizontal plane, lateral monocular region Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Toxostoma rufum
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Strix leptogrammica
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Molothrus ater
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Estimated
33° Estimated
lateral Estimated
51°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Nothoprocta cinerascens
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Melopsittacus undulatus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
lateral Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Bucephala albeola
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Athene cunicularia
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
mixed Derived
Melozone crissalis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
325° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Branta canadensis
306° Estimated
54° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Serinus canaria
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
315° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Bubo capensis
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Zanda latirostris
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Group default
Poecile carolinensis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
303° Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus corone
335° Estimated
37.6°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap; N=5; ophthalmoscopic reflex (this study) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Bubulcus ibis
321° Measured
22° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
167° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
321° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
22°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Strix chacoensis
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Gallus gallus
338° Group default
22° Group default
lateral Group default
area centralis Measured
cone-dominated Derived
Phoenicopterus chilensis
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Nothoprocta perdicaria
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Milvago chimango
292° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Spizella passerina
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
318° Derived
42° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Alectoris chukar
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Ficedula albicollis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Otus bakkamoena
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Turdus merula
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
lateral Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Buteo buteo
278° Estimated
82° Estimated
lateral Estimated
deep central + shallow temporal Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Fringilla coelebs
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
315° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Somateria mollissima
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Bucephala clangula
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Quiscalus quiscula
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Falco tinnunculus
292° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Gavia immer
306° Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Gallinula chloropus
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Struthio camelus
290° Measured
70° Derived
lateral Derived
80° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
155° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
290° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Coturnix coturnix
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus corax
335° Estimated
43.2°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap; N=3; ophthalmoscopic reflex (this study) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Otus scops
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Apus apus
temporal fovea only (no central pit) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Accipiter cooperii
300° Derived
110°; elevation 90 deg (horizontal plane through the eyes); eyes at rest unless stated Measured
deep central + shallow temporal Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Platycercus elegans
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus brachyrhynchos
335° Derived
42°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Amadina fasciata
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Junco hyemalis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
329° Derived
31° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Gallus domesticus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
Aquila heliaca
277.5° Estimated
deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Sturnella magna
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Derived
33° Measured
lateral Derived
32.7°; horizontal plane; eyes at rest unless stated Measured
51.4°; horizontal plane; eyes at rest unless stated; eyes converged Measured
12°; horizontal plane; eyes at rest unless stated; eyes diverged Measured
18.3°; horizontal plane; eyes at rest unless stated; eyes diverged Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Derived
33° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Neophron percnopterus
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Derived
46.5°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
46.5°; horizontal plane (90 deg elevation); eyes converged (binocular boundaries measured with eyes spontaneously fully rotated forwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
134°; horizontal plane; schematic sector in Fig. 1 that combines converged-eye binocular and diverged-eye blind boundaries; alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
deep central only Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Dromaius novaehollandiae
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Bubo bubo
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Pluvialis apricaria
360° Group default
15°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Coloeus monedula
328.5° Estimated
45.7°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap; N=3; ophthalmoscopic reflex (this study) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Garrulus glandarius
328.5° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Pica pica
328.5° Estimated
45°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Alauda arvensis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Accipiter nisus
300° Estimated
deep central + shallow temporal Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Burhinus oedicnemus
345° Measured
18° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
80° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
181° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
345° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
18°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Mareca penelope
306° Estimated
20°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Scolopax rusticola
359° Measured
5° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
182° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
359° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
12°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Caprimulgus europaeus
201° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Ficedula hypoleuca
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Erithacus rubecula
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Sturnus vulgaris
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
296° Derived
64° Measured
lateral Derived
135° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
161° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
286° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
43°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Aythya nyroca
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Spizella pusilla
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
314° Derived
46° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Turdus pilaris
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Mareca strepera
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Eolophus roseicapilla
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Spatula querquedula
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Bubo lacteus
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Aquila chrysaetos
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Derived
56°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
134.5°; horizontal plane; schematic sector in Fig. 1 that combines converged-eye binocular and diverged-eye blind boundaries; alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Mergus merganser
306° Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Erythrura gouldiae
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Perdix perdix
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Chlamydera nuchalis
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Phalacrocorax carbo
308° Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Podiceps cristatus
310° Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Strix nebulosa
201° Estimated
159° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
no Estimated
rod-dominated Derived
Bubo virginianus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
201° Estimated
159° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
no Measured (not re-verified)
rod-dominated Derived
Rhea americana
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Aythya marila
306° Estimated
54° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anser albifrons
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Ailuroedus crassirostris
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Sephanoides sephaniodes
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured (not re-verified)
temporal fovea only (no central pit) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Dumetella carolinensis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Thalassarche chrysostoma
270° Measured
27° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
90° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
148° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
270° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
27°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Gyps fulvus
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Derived
deep central only Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Parabuteo unicinctus
277° Derived
83° Measured
lateral Derived
deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Lophodytes cucullatus
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Necrosyrtes monachus
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Derived
54°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
131.5°; horizontal plane; schematic sector in Fig. 1 that combines converged-eye binocular and diverged-eye blind boundaries; alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
deep central only Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Haemorhous mexicanus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
315° Estimated
46°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Delichon urbicum
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
307° Estimated
central and temporal fovea Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Passer domesticus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
332° Derived
28° Measured
lateral Derived
46°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Troglodytes aedon
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Spheniscus humboldti
282° Measured
78° Derived
lateral Derived
28° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
125° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
155° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
282° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
45°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
123°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; method printed: histology, optical ray tracing (Martin & Young 1984) Measured
114°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; histology, optical ray tracing Measured
0°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; histology, optical ray tracing Measured
77°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; histology, optical ray tracing Measured
246°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; histology, optical ray tracing Measured
78°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in air; histology, optical ray tracing Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Larosterna inca
300.7° Derived
125°; alert birds; eyes at rest Measured
134°; alert birds; eyes at rest; horizontal plane, lateral monocular region Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Pavo cristatus
lateral Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Gyps indicus
277.5° Estimated
deep central only Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Passerina cyanea
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus macrorhynchos
335° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Coturnix japonica
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Aptenodytes patagonicus
282° Estimated
29° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
29°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
127°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; fundus reflex Measured
70°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; fundus reflex Measured
36°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in water; binocular printed −36 (footnote: a 36 deg blind area to the front) Measured
14°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in air; fundus reflex Measured
183°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in air; fundus reflex Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Falco biarmicus
292° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Leucophaeus atricilla
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
306.6° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Dacelo novaeguineae
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Anas laysanensis
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Oceanodroma leucorhoa
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Empidonax minimus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
334.8° Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Phoeniconaias minor
338° Group default
10°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Anous tenuirostris
309.7° Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Aythya affinis
306° Estimated
54° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Dendrocygna javanica
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Cacatua sanguinea
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Athene noctua
201° Estimated
159° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
no Estimated
rod-dominated Derived
Eudyptula minor
282° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Cacatua tenuirostris
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Clangula hyemalis
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Phaethornis superciliosus
temporal fovea only (no central pit) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Oxyura maccoa
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anas platyrhynchos
360° Measured
0° Derived
lateral Derived
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
183° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
360° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
20°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
mixed Derived
Aix galericulata
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Puffinus puffinus
285° Measured
75° Derived
lateral Derived
14° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
90° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
148° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
285° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
18°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Marmaronetta angustirostris
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Zenaida macroura
316° Estimated
44° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus moneduloides
335° Estimated
61.5°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap; N=3; ophthalmoscopic reflex (this study) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Cardinalis cardinalis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Fulmarus glacialis
307° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
mixed Derived
Surnia ulula
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Asio otus
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Spatula clypeata
306° Estimated
20°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
mixed Derived
Gypohierax angolensis
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Derived
52°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
40°; horizontal plane (90 deg elevation); eyes converged (binocular boundaries measured with eyes spontaneously fully rotated forwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
134°; horizontal plane; schematic sector in Fig. 1 that combines converged-eye binocular and diverged-eye blind boundaries; alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
deep central only Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Falco peregrinus
292° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus albus
335° Estimated
46.2°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap; N=1; ophthalmoscopic reflex (this study) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Malacorhynchus membranaceus
306° Estimated
17°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anser brachyrhynchus
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anas acuta
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
mixed Derived
Neochmia modesta
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Spatula puna
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anthochaera carunculata
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Leiothrix lutea
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Branta ruficollis
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Mergus serrator
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Calyptorhynchus banksii
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Buteo jamaicensis
278° Derived
82° Measured
lateral Derived
83.33°; elevation 90 deg (horizontal plane through the eyes); eyes at rest unless stated Measured
central fovea, temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Agelaius phoeniceus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Emberiza schoeniclus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Sericulus chrysocephalus
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Aythya collaris
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Phasianus colchicus
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Bubo bengalensis
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Columba livia
316° Measured (not re-verified)
44° Derived
lateral Derived
22° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
130° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
169° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
316° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
27°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
central fovea Measured
cone-dominated Derived
Eudyptes chrysocome
282° Estimated
144°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in air; fundus reflex Measured
14°; medium (air / water) as stated; horizontal plane in the plane of the optic axes; in air; fundus reflex Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Corvus frugilegus
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
335° Estimated
25° Estimated
lateral Derived
46.7°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap; N=3; ophthalmoscopic reflex (this study) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Tadorna ferruginea
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Bonasa umbellus
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Strix rufipes
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Amazilia tzacatl
temporal fovea only (no central pit) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Todiramphus sanctus
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Falco cherrug
292° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Ptilonorhynchus violaceus
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Tympanuchus phasianellus
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Calyptorhynchus latirostris
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Asio flammeus
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Buteo brachyurus
278° Estimated
deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Circaetus gallicus
259° Derived
101° Measured
lateral Derived
80° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
139° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
259° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Zosterops lateralis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Mergellus albellus
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anser caerulescens
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Bubo scandiacus
201° Estimated
159° Estimated
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
no Estimated
mixed Derived
Melospiza melodia
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
325° Derived
35° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Onychoprion fuscatus
296.5° Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Ninox boobook
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Caracara plancus
292° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Ptilopsis granti
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Pulsatrix perspicillata
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Chlamydera maculata
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Bubo africanus
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Canachites canadensis
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Ardeola ralloides
324° Measured
18° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
167° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
324° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
20°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Aquila nipalensis
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Derived
80°; horizontal plane, behind the head (270 deg elevation); eyes diverged (blind boundaries measured with eyes fully rotated backwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
122°; horizontal plane; schematic sector in Fig. 1 that combines converged-eye binocular and diverged-eye blind boundaries; alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
deep central + shallow temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Pseudoscops clamator
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Melanitta perspicillata
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Strix aluco
201° Measured (not re-verified)
159° Derived
lateral Derived
70° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
124° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
210° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
temporal Measured
no Measured (not re-verified)
rod-dominated Derived
Scenopoeetes dentirostris
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured (not re-verified)
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Tachycineta bicolor
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
307° Derived
central and temporal fovea Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Puffinus bailloni
301.4° Derived
100°; alert birds; eyes at rest Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Estimated
Baeolophus bicolor
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Estimated
319° Derived
41° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Cygnus columbianus
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
mixed Derived
Cathartes aura
259° Derived
101° Derived
lateral Derived
26°; horizontal plane (90 deg elevation); eyes converged (binocular boundaries measured with eyes spontaneously fully rotated forwards, Methods); alert live birds (falconry parks) Measured
deep central only Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Strix uralensis
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Aquila audax
277.5° Estimated
82.5° Estimated
lateral Estimated
central fovea, temporal Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Puffinus pacificus
312.6° Derived
47.4° Measured
lateral Derived
115°; alert birds; eyes at rest Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Egretta gularis
320° Measured
15° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
180° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
168° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
320° (approximate); approximately horizontal plane; eyes in relaxed (resting) position; head in typical posture for the species; alert live birds Measured
20°; maximum binocular overlap (widest frontal binocular sector at any elevation); maximum binocular overlap (compiled) Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Megascops kennicottii
201° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
rod-dominated Derived
Aphelocoma californica
322° Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Gygis alba
306.6° Derived
90°; alert birds; eyes at rest; from the elevation at which it could be measured below the bill Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Gyps africanus
277.5° Estimated
deep central only Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Sitta carolinensis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
314° Derived
46° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Zonotrichia leucophrys
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Estimated
33° Estimated
lateral Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Oxyura leucocephala
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Lonchura maja
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Trigonoceps occipitalis
277.5° Estimated
30°; alert birds; eyes at rest Measured
155° (approximate); alert birds; eyes at rest Measured
deep central + shallow temporal Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Zonotrichia albicollis
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
327° Derived
33° Measured
lateral Derived
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Measured (not re-verified)
cone-dominated Derived
Asarcornis scutulata
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Melanitta deglandi
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Estimated
Grus americana
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Meleagris gallopavo
338° Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Anas undulata
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Anas georgica
306° Estimated
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Estimated
cone-dominated Derived
Acanthiza chrysorrhoa
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Emberiza citrinella
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Group default
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Taeniopygia guttata
yes: at least one receptor peaks in the ultraviolet Measured
single central fovea (displaced dorso-temporally from retinal centre) Group default
cone-dominated Derived
Method: how we know what animals see. Accuracy: the census.